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The question of how biases are avoided was first addressed some time ago (Kahneman & Tversky arrhythmia foods to eat purchase 40mg innopran xl free shipping, 1982; Tversky & Kahneman, 1983); we expand on it here. The first section introduces a distinction between two families of cognitive operations, called System 1 and System 2. The second section presents an attribute-substitution model of heuristic judgment, which elaborates and extends earlier treatments of the topic (Kahneman & Tversky, 1982; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974, 1983). The third section introduces a research design for studying attribute substitution. The fourth section discusses the controversy over the representativeness heuristic. The last section situates representativeness within a broad family of prototype heuristics, in which properties of a prototypical exemplar dominate global judgments concerning an entire set. Dual-process models come in many flavors, but all distinguish cognitive operations that are quick and associative from others that are slow and rule-governed (Gilbert, 1999). We adopt the generic labels System 1 and System 2 from Stanovich and West (Chapter 24). These terms may suggest the image of autonomous homunculi, but such a meaning is not intended. We use systems as a label for collections of processes that are distinguished by their speed, controllability, and the contents on which they operate (Table 2. Two Cognitive Systems Although System 1 is more primitive than System 2, it is not necessarily less capable. On the contrary, complex cognitive operations eventually migrate from System 2 to System 1 as proficiency and skill are acquired. A striking demonstration of the intelligence of System 1 is the ability of chess masters to perceive the strength or weakness of chess positions instantly. In the particular dual-process model we assume, System 1 quickly proposes intuitive answers to judgment problems as they arise, and System 2 monitors the quality of these proposals, which it may endorse, correct, or override. The judgments that are eventually expressed are called intuitive if they retain the hypothesized initial proposal without much modification. The roles of the two systems in determining stated judgments depend on features of the task and of the individual, including the time available for deliberation (Finucane et al. We assume that System 1 and System 2 can be active concurrently, that automatic and controlled cognitive operations compete for the control of overt responses, and that deliberate judgments are likely to remain anchored on initial impressions. The first question is more basic, of course, but the second should not be neglected, as illustrated next. The notions of heuristic and bias were introduced by Tversky and Kahneman (1974; Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky, 1982, p. These judgments are all based on data of limited validity, which are processed according to heuristic rules. For example, the apparent distance of an object is determined in part by its clarity. This rule has some validity, because in any given scene the more distant objects are seen less sharply than nearer objects. However, the reliance on this rule leads to systematic errors in the estimation of distance. Specifically, distances are often overestimated when visibility is poor because the contours of objects are blurred. On the other hand, distances are often underestimated when visibility is good because the objects are seen sharply. However, the analysis of the effect of haze is flawed: It neglects the fact that an observer looking at a distant mountain possesses two relevant cues, not one. The first cue is the blur of the contours of the target mountain, which is positively correlated with its distance, when all else is equal. The second relevant cue, which the observer can readily assess by looking around, is the ambient or general haziness. In an optimal regression model for estimating distance, general haziness is a suppressor variable, which must be weighted negatively because it contributes to blur but is uncorrelated with distance. The effect of haziness on impressions of distance is a failing of System 1; the perceptual system is not designed to correct for this variable. The effect of haziness on judgments of distance is a separate failure of System 2. Although people are capable of consciously correcting their impressions of distance for the effects of ambient haze, they commonly fail to do so. A similar analysis applies to some of the judgmental biases we discuss later, in which errors and biases only occur when both systems fail. However, the restriction to particular heuristics and to a specific context is largely arbitrary. The results suggest that respondents had little besides love on their mind when they evaluated their overall well-being. Biases Because the target attribute and the heuristic attribute are different, the substitution of one for the other inevitably introduces systematic biases. In this chapter we are mostly concerned with weighting biases, which arise when cues available to the judge are given either too much or too little weight. Normative standards for these attributes must be drawn from the constraints of ordinary language, and they are often imprecise. For example, the conventional meaning of overall happiness does not specify how much weight ought to be given to various life domains. However, it certainly does require that substantial weight be given to every important domain of life, and that no weight at all be given to the current weather, or to the recent consumption of a cookie. Accordingly, neglect of duration in assessments of survival probabilities would be properly described as a weighting bias, even if there is no way to establish a normative probability for individual cases (Kahneman & Tversky, 1996). In some judgmental tasks, information that could serve to supplement or correct the heuristic is not neglected or underweighted, but simply lacking. If asked to judge the relative frequency of words beginning with k or r (Tversky and Kahneman, 1973) or to compare the population of a familiar foreign city with one that is unfamiliar (Gigerenzer and Goldstein, 1996), respondents have little recourse but to base such judgments on ease of retrieval or recognition. The necessary reliance on these heuristic attributes renders such judgements susceptible to biasing factors. However, unlike weighting biases, such biases of insufficient information cannot be described as errors of judgment, because there is no way to avoid them. Accessibility and Substitution the intent to judge a target attribute initiates a search for a reasonable value.

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Analyze How does the use of a strong meter Vocabulary Check and regular rhyme (or near-rhyme) scheme Match each Vocabulary word with its defnition blood pressure of athletes buy cheap innopran xl on-line. How does Whitman use Literary Analysis repetition to emphasize his point and convey the 6. What is the metaphor, and how expression of sadness have does it enhance the sadness of the poem. Free Verse A free verse poem does not follow a regular rhyme Multiple-Meaning Words the speakers scheme or meter. Reading Aloud One way to fully understand and appreciate the poetic devices in a poem is to read it aloud. What Into Action As you read these poems aloud, record instances of diferences, if any, do you fnd in the the following poetic devices. Tink as a Reader/Writer Find It in Your Reading Record in your Reader/Writer Notebook images from the poems that evoke a strong emotional response. One day in 1925, Hughes discov ered that the famous poet Vachel Lindsay was staying at the Preview the Washington, D. B A Literary Focus Free Verse What does Whitman do in these lines to create a sense of rhythm. They send me to eat in the kitchen When company comes, 5 But I laugh, And eat well, And grow strong. Then, write a statement that describes how reading aloud helped you Literary Skills Review: Symbol identify sound devices and appreciate each poem. Interpret A symbol is a person, place, thing, or event that stands for something beyond itself. Make Judgments Based on his poem, how Use It in Your Writing Look back at the do you think Whitman regarded America and images you noted in your Reader/Writer Notebook. Vocabulary Skills Identify and use correctly multiple meaning words; use academic vocabulary appropriately. Look at the following example: Write About Media Imagery the cycle of semesters continues every year. Create a Web Page TeTechFocuschFocus Think of a group you believe is not being heard (perhaps endangered animals or an Your Turn oppressed people). Choose a poet, leaves (line 4) and check out a collection of his poems from a intermission(line 7) library. Introduce your poem frst, company (line 4) explaining your interpretation of its meaning. Learn It Online Sharpen your knowledge of multiple-meaning words with the online interactive Vocabulary Tutor at: go. Frost was born in San Francisco, but he was raised in New England, which became the setting for almost all of his poetry. An American Icon As a young man, Frost had tried raising chickens Frost spent the rest of his long life farming, on a farm that his grandfather had given him, writing poetry, giving lectures, and reading his but he was unsuccessful. The humor and wisdom, setting forth to our minds books were immediately popular, and by the a reliable representation of ourselves and of all time Frost returned to the United States, pub men. Raymond was taken into the house and a physician was immediately summoned, but he died very suddenly from the in the landscapes and people of that area, efects of the shock, which produced heart failure. The plain speech and everyday subjects of In his poems, Frost tried to depict the his poems disguise their complex thoughts. It read as follows: to carry their conversation over into poetry, I could hear their voices.

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The proportion of cases in foreign-born patients varied depending on the location; two studies from Prague and Dublin estimated this proportion to vary from 20% to 40% [70 blood pressure medication used for headaches innopran xl 80mg with visa,81]. However, when compared to blacks, the greatest percentage increases in cases occurred among Hispanics and whites [7,89-92]. Most cases occurred in young men, belonging to a minority ethnicity and living or getting infected in metropolitan areas [83,91]. Studies from Australia and New Zealand also report rising trends of syphilis cases [99]. Traditionally, the highest rate of infections was seen among aboriginal populations, but this pattern has changed in recent years, with an increase in males residing in urban and outer regional areas [100-102]. The majority (83% in one study) of these males were reported to be gay or bisexual men [103]. Most heterosexual infections are reported to have occurred overseas, among people of non-European, non-Maori ethnicity [102]. Despite the number of female cases diagnosed each year, it is of some concern that the majority of these cases are detected through screening of asymptomatic patients [101]. Reports from Japan, also indicate an increase in cases every year, with the annual rate of increase greatest for primary and secondary syphilis cases. Syphilis prevalence remained stable over the period under study but it was still higher than in the general population [117,118]. Factors such as being a client of a sex worker, having casual sex, or having condomless sex were associated with a syphilis diagnosis [117,118]. Early syphilis was the most frequent stage of disease detected in this risk group. The studies conveyed only few details on the syphilis stages in heterosexual cases. Migrants and refugees Migrants and refugees are an important risk group regarding the burden of syphilis (Table A4. Some studies have shown a higher prevalence in the identified foreign-born population [140,141]. When investigating especially vulnerable populations, such as Roma, additional risk factors such as a higher proportion of sex workers (>30%) was found [140]. More cases were described in male migrants [140-142], never married, with a low level of education [140]. The relationship with age was less clear, with one study from Spain finding migrants with syphilis to be younger than natives [141], but the study on Roma in Belgrade found a higher proportion of cases in the older age groups [140]; several studies found the most affected population to be of African origin [141,143,144]. Pregnant women Due to the association with congenital syphilis, pregnant women are an extremely important population group (Table A4. Similar increasing trends have been observed in other high-income countries such as Australia (especially in aboriginal populations) and Japan [147]. In Spain, a positive test result was twice as common among pregnant women as in the general population [158]; in Ireland, positive results in pregnant women were four times higher than in the rest of the population [159], most likely because of increased detection through antenatal screening. Despite the high levels of antenatal care attendance [152], not all pregnant women were tested for syphilis or received adequate pre-natal care or treatment [148-150,155,160]. However, large increases have also been described in white women and women in the highest annual household income quartiles [148]. In many of the studies, there was a high proportion of cases in migrants [148,157,162,163]. Compared with non pregnant women, the pregnant females found to have syphilis were younger, almost all were married or in a steady long-standing relationship, but had more lifetime sexual contacts [147,151,164]. The social circumstances of mothers varied and included drug use, sex work, or a history of incarceration [150,156,164]. Other risk groups Although the most important risk groups are listed above, other groups were occasionally cited (Table A4. In this study on female sex workers working in Tirana, the syphilis prevalence was found to be 6. Military health services have their own surveillance system, and syphilis was an important priority in the 20th century. Males contributed for the greatest proportion of cases and reported the highest increase, especially black, non-Hispanic males [166-168]. Syphilis screening in blood donors is widely implemented in high-income countries as a fundamental blood safety measure. Results from screening the blood donor population revealed that syphilis antibody prevalence varied from 0. The prevalence was higher among males in most of the studies [169,173], but the peak age groups differed [169,173]. Secondary syphilis was the most frequent stage of disease reported in this group [173]. Syphilitic uveitis is a preventable cause of ocular and neurologic morbidity and has been on the rise since 2014 [174-178]. Treatment improved the symptoms in all cases [174,181,183] but important long-term sequelae were still reported [182]. Syphilis reinfection is rising [184], with annual increases reported to be ranging between 1. The number of recurrent syphilis infections per individual ranged from one to more than four [177,185]. According to one study, the median time between the two most recent syphilis diagnoses was approximately 18 months [95]. Recent studies show that the reduction in cases continues [164], despite some heterosexual syphilis outbreaks [34]. Concerns have also been expressed in Japan where the ongoing heterosexual outbreak is disproportionately affecting young women. Antenatal care programmes in high-income countries include syphilis screening once or twice during pregnancy. Other determining factors were the lack of syphilis treatment during pregnancy (or inadequate treatment) in spite of at least one prenatal visit [162]. Occasionally, some of the cases were not tested for syphilis during prenatal visits [145]. Other risk factors identified in pregnant women with a positive syphilis test include history of incarceration, high sexual risk behaviour, or drug use [150]. In Europe, most of the cases are in mothers from east European countries [160,162-164]. Several determinants are known to be associated with the spread of syphilis; these include poverty, young age, scarcity of men or low status of women [192]. In several studies, the highest rates of syphilis infection were observed among ethnic minorities [193-195], likely due to community-level differences and segregation. Migration, under certain circumstances, also involves segregation-based clustering and bridging. This is particularly obvious for syphilis, where lower income is associated with increased prevalence [199]. Of the Member States with comprehensive surveillance systems, 16 reported that their system captured all syphilis diagnoses in the country, whereas seven reported that their system did not capture all diagnoses in the country; one country did not respond to the question. Of the three countries having sentinel surveillance systems for syphilis, the estimated coverage of all syphilis diagnoses in the country was 17%, 70% and 80%.

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Skin disorders such as portwine stain and haemangioma are first evident at time of birth pulse pressure def purchase innopran xl 40 mg otc. A variety of coding opportunities present themselves in these situations and similar lesions may appear under different groupings. There is a facial port wine stain, a venous angioma of the leptomeninges and choroidal angioma. A diagnosis of congenital hypothyroidism was made on routine newborn blood spot testing in two infants. Developmental dysplasia of the hip was evident within the first week of life in four infants, (all female). Abnormalities of the face and neck account for 25% of these cases with two further cases of congenital cataract, one case of congenital glaucoma and a seemingly late diagnosis of cleft soft palate. Molecular studies subsequently demonstrated a frameshift mutation and confirmed the mother as a carrier. Despite involvement of fetal medicine and paediatric services a diagnosis of posterior uretheral valves was delayed. Chromosomal disorders and abnormalities of the cranio-spinal system were the predominate diagnostic groupings, closely followed by genitourinary and musculoskeletal disorders, (Figure 2. Ninety-seven percent of all cranial and spinal defects were diagnosed on prenatal ultrasound scan. Cardiac and circulatory disorders diagnosed on antenatal scan included double outlet right ventricle, transposition of the great arteries, isomerism, congenitally corrected transposition, tetralogy of Fallot, total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage and coarctation of the aorta. Primary disorders of the genitourinary system subject to prenatal diagnosis included ovarian cysts, aphalia, renal agenesis, hydronephrosis, multicystic dysplastic kidney, duplex kidney, ectopic kidney and posterior uretheral valves. When a prenatal diagnosis of abnormality was made eighty-six cases were terminated, (41%), but in the majority of cases, (n=123, 58%), the pregnancy continued to live birth, (Figure 2. There were no significant external dysmorphic features or internal congenital anomalies. All infants with congenital neoplastic lesions, infections or primary abnormalities of the respiratory or neurological systems were live born. Three were classified as hamartomas, (haemangioma and lymphangioma), including a lymphangioma of the left axilla in a female infant. As a result, they contain various epithelial, mesenchymal and neural tissue components. A cystic structure was confirmed within the fetal pelvis and anterior to the sacrum. All cases of coarctation of the aorta, tetralogy of Fallot, tricuspid stenosis and both cases of heterotaxy syndrome were associated with live births. The data records that only one of these stillbirths had a defined congenital abnormality. Previous reports have documented a high proportion of chromosomal abnormalities in this group. The parents declined karyotype and continued with the pregnancy accepting that it would be likely to end with intrauterine fetal demise. Chromosomal abnormality was the commonest indication for terminations, (n=30), followed by neural tube defects, (Figure 3. When the abnormality is not compatible with survival termination without fetocide may be undertaken but only after full discussion with parents and health professionals. Termination of pregnancy was performed with fetocide and then drainage of the fetal head prior to induction of labour. A further 9 cases are listed where fetocide was performed prior to mid-trimester termination. These disorders are typically diagnosed as a consequence of new-born bloodspot screening within the first few weeks of life, (Figure 4. There are many anomalies of development of the thyroid gland including ectopia along the path of descent of the thyro-glossal duct. The thyroid may be completely absent but most typically a sublingual thyroid ectopy without lateral lobes is evident. Three cases of congenital hypothyroidism are described in the data and all were live born. In each case the diagnosis of hypothyroidism was made on bloodspot screening within the first week of life. This enzyme converts the amino acid phenylalanine to other important compounds in the body. If gene mutations reduce the activity of phenylalanine hydroxylase, phenylalanine from the diet is not processed effectively. Because nerve cells in the brain are particularly sensitive to phenylalanine levels, excessive amounts of this substance can cause brain damage. Albinism (E703) Waardenburg syndrome is associated with disorder of skin and hair pigmentation and usually inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. The most common mutation in the West of Scotland population is F508, a deletion of three nucleotides that results in the loss of the amino acid phenylalanine at the 508th position on the protein. The majority were live births with the diagnosis made on blood spot testing in the first week of life. Given the multi-system nature of this disorder it is strange that such a distinction is made. Over ninety percent of diagnoses of primary cranial & spinal abnormality were made on prenatal ultrasound scan, (Figure 4. However, most are isolated defects resulting from a presumed interaction between environmental and genetic risk factors. The prognosis is grave and the severity of the condition justifies termination of the pregnancy. Encephalocoele, (Q01) A cephalocoele is a defect in the bony skull through which meninges and brain substance may protrude. It is the result of a defect of neural tube closure during the 6th week of gestation. The location of the defect is mid occipital in 75% of cases, fronto-ethmoidal in 13% and parietal in 12%. Spina Bifida, (Q05)15 Spina bifida is a general term used to describe a neural tube defect of the spine in which part of the meninges or spinal cord or both protrudes through an opening in the vertebral column. Posterior defects of neural tube closure are among the most common fetal abnormalities. In closed spina bifida the bony defect of the posterior vertebral arches, the herniated meninges and neural tissue are covered by a layer of skin. The commonest associated abnormality was Arnold-Chiari Malformation, (Q070), consisting of downward displacement of the cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum. The codes in the Q05 section describe both the site of the defect and if hydrocephalus is present or not. When coding spina bifida with Arnold Chiari malformation it is practice to use the best possible code for spina bifida within Q05 and add the code for Arnold Chiari, (Q070). It is important to note that the prevalence of microcephaly varies considerably with annual fluctuations a likely consequence of the rarity of this condition. The shortcomings of many surveillance programmes coupled with the rarity of microcephaly mean that changes in prevalence, potentially due to Zika virus, could be missed. Atresia of Foramina of Magendie & Luschka, (Q031) Dandy Walker malformation is defined by hydrocephalus and partial or complete absence of the cerebellar vermis with a posterior fossa cyst that opens directly into the 4th ventricle. However, cases have been described in which atresia has not been present and it is considered that the anomaly is a due to a more complex developmental error.

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Distal weakness may occur later in the feet and legs followed by the hands and arms hypertension pregnancy order innopran xl 40mg with mastercard. Neurological examination usually reveals wasting, fasciculation, distal weakness with absent refexes and loss of light touch. William Howlett Neurology in Africa 263 Chapter 11 disorders of peripheral nerves Table 11. The history provides essential information concerning the mode of onset, time course, distribution, character and pattern of symptoms. The clinical distribution will indicate whether it is confned to just one nerve or is more generalised afecting all peripheral nerves. Additional clinical fndings may also indicate the cause; the peripheral nerves may be thickened in leprosy, or clawing of the feet or pes cavus is seen in hereditary neuropathies or the low blood pressure on standing characteristic of autonomic neuropathies. Motor symptoms include mild to severe weakness in the limbs, problems with walking or running, and difculties manipulating or using fngers and hands. Main fndings on neurological examination include wasting, weakness and loss of refexes in the limbs (Fig. Terms used to describe the superfcial sensory symptoms include: paraesthesia, meaning abnormal tingling sensation; hyperaesthesia, meaning increased sensitivity to a stimulus and dysaesthesia, meaning unpleasant tingling. Sensory symptoms tend to occur before motor symptoms and typically involve the feet earlier than hands. Findings on neurological examination include loss of light touch, pain and joint position sense distally in the limbs mostly the feet. A sensory polyneuropathy may also cause poor balance and unsteady gait due to a loss of position sense in the feet. When the neuropathy involves loss of pain then trophic changes and digital loss can occur (Fig. Polymyositis and myopathy may sometimes mimic a neuropathy but skin involvement and the mainly proximal pattern of weakness should suggest underlying muscle disease. Fatigability after exercise, a mainly truncal-axial pattern of weakness, ptosis and intact refexes all point to myasthenia gravis. While myelopathy symptoms may sometimes mimic neuropathy, the predominantly upper motor neurone signs, the sphincteric involvement and pattern of sensory loss or alteration should all suggest spinal cord involvement. Diagnosis The diagnosis of peripheral neuropathy relies mainly on the clinical fndings and in as many as half the cases no underlying cause is found. Investigations should include laboratory screening tests for the common causes as outlined in Table 11. The patterns of electrical recordings at rest and during activity can determine the likely origin of the disorder. High dose corticosteroids are used in neuropathies complicating vasculitis and chronic infammation. General measures include analgesics, anti infammatories, tricyclics, the antiepileptic drugs carbamazepine, pregabalin and gabapentin and also opiates (Chapter 20). General advice is given to prevent ulcers by wearing protective foot wear and avoiding injury. Power is usually maintained but may very occasionally be decreased around the ankle joint. Sensation involving touch is mostly intact but touch is characteristically perceived by the patient as painful or dysaesthetic, particularly when touched crudely on the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands. Symptomatic relief of pain may be obtained using simple analgesics and/or amitriptyline; however opiates may be necessary in severe cases. William Howlett Neurology in Africa 267 Chapter 11 disorders of peripheral nerves Figure 11. In particular this occurs with the use of the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, stavudine (d4T). Care should be taken to ensure that pyridoxine 20 mg/po/daily has been prescribed in all patients taking isoniazid, and that thiamine 100 mg/ po/daily should be given in suspected cases of B-1 vitamin defciency. It causes damage to nerves which results in characteristic deformity and disability. Despite a reported decline in the incidence of leprosy, there are still a quarter to half a million new cases reported worldwide each year with most occurring in India. Transmission Leprosy is transmitted by inhalation of aerosolized nasal secretions from an infected person. Efective transmission requires regular prolonged close household or community contact with an infected person. The incubation period from infection to clinical disease varies from months to up to 30 years. The average incubation of contracting the disease from contact household cases is estimated to be about 5 years. Clinical features The clinical features are determined by the host immune response. The main clinical presentations are anaesthetic skin lesions and peripheral neuropathy. When disease does develop the clinical spectrum corresponds with the degree of T cell mediated immunity of the patient. In tuberculoid leprosy there are single or few well circumscribed hypopigmented lesions with sharp borders. Tese are macular or plaque-like hypoanaesthetic patches often with loss of sweating and occurring usually on the trunk (Fig. In lepromatous leprosy there are multiple, widespread, symmetrical, hypopigmented lesions with mostly intact sensation and/or infltrated patches, papules and nodules. All suspected skin lesions should be tested carefully for light touch, pain, temperature and for sweating. Patients with leprosy present with skin lesions, muscle wasting, weakness or numbness in a peripheral nerve distribution or a burn or an ulcer in an anaesthetic hand or foot (Fig. This occurs near the surface of the skin, where they present with palpable, thickened sometimes tender nerves and loss of neurological function in the distribution of the nerve. The common sites are the greater auricular in the neck, the ulnar at the elbow, median at the wrist, Great radial cutaneous at the wrist, common peroneal at the Auricular knee and posterior tibial behind the medial malleolus Median (Figs. Patients typically present with new skin lesions, nerve pain and sudden nerve palsies. Loss of peripheral refexes, joint position and vibration sense are typically late fndings in leprosy being preserved early on in the disease. Early clawing (ulnar) Clawing & loss of sensation (ulnar) Lagophthalmos Figure 11. This results in a loss of sensation on the cornea and inability to close and protect the eye (Fig. The diagnostic features are hypopigmented patches with defnite loss of sensation (Fig. While the typical pattern of skin and neurological involvement help to establish the diagnosis in leprosy particularly in endemic areas, a keen index of suspicion is always necessary especially in non endemic areas. The key areas are an understanding of its low infectivity, importance of drug compliance, an awareness of reversal reactions, the critical need for care of anaesthetic feet and hands and social issues. The main aim of treatment is to cure the patient without residual permanent disability. The treatment of leprosy depends on whether it is lepromatous or tuberculoid in type. The treatments include dapsone, clofazamine and rifampicin and are outlined in Table 11. They present with acute infammation, erythema, oedema and tender nerves, sometimes with dramatic loss of nerve function (Fig.

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When Sleeping Beauty was released in 1960 arrhythmia vs afib purchase innopran xl overnight, it was a loser, movie goers were apathetic towards it. Roy Edward Disney (nephew of Walt) is the son of Roy Oliver Disney (brother of Walt). He is a director of the Guild American West, the Writers Guild, which is important. Their big break came when Michael Milken and his band of junk bond artists carried out a "greenmail" on the Disney Corp. Milken would work with his friends Saul Steinberg, Sir James Goldsmith, and Carl Icahn. Milken would provide them the financial clout, to make them look financially capable of financially purchasing a corporation that they had selected as a target. According to insiders, Milken got 40% of the upside of any "greenmail" that went right. The targeted corporation would learn that someone like Saul Steinberg was going to buy them out. In order to prevent the buyout, and to keep their jobs, the officers of the targeted corporation would get frantic, and either do suicidal refinancings, or buy the stock of the potential acquirer for much greater prices than the Milken group paid for them. Saul Steinberg made what looked like the beginnings of a sincere hostile takeover of Walt Disney through Reliance. Steinberg filed an amended 13D saying he intended to acquire 25% of the corporation. For Ron Miller, on the one side was the Illuminati and the other side of things was the mafia. But under their tutelage, Disney now has a management team that is skilled in land grabbing techniques. The Bass fortune began with Perry Bass, who created a company called Bass Enterprises. In 1969, Perry retired and turned things over to his eldest son, Sid Richardson Bass. The Basses owned 27% in Prime Computer, as well as sizable real estate and oil holdings. In exchange for their $14 investment in Arvida, they had gotten (over a period of time) $950 million dollars worth of Disney stock. In 1985, they liquidated Bass Brothers Enterprises and divided the assets between the four brothers. Sid Bass was able to shift his interests from finances to culture and high society. Roy is involved in criminal activities, and several people investigating him have been bluntly warned that if they continue, they will see their children murdered. For instance, British millionaire Kenneth Armitage, who had to flee from England to avoid arrest on numerous charges of theft, deception and false accounting, had some of his good friends in the Napa Valley, such as Dr. Armitage had intelligence connections which tie in with twilight world of the criminal activities of the numerous intelligence acronym monsters. Also his company was authorized to provide people with Central American government documents. The Greystone Culinary Institute of America recently had the person who runs their campus store mentioned in House & Garden, Sept. Like a lot of adolescent girls, I was crazy about horses, and I got quite good at riding. He was also famous for his ten cent tips at restaurants, which became the talk of the town. The newspapers around the country announced that Lillian had given birth to Sharon, and the Disney family kept up this lie for years. Walt had wanted a son, but his wife wanted to adopt a girl, so it was a beautiful girl that Lillian picked out to be a companion for her first daughter. When Sharon was kindergarten age, Walt would take her to the carousels in Griffith Park on Sunday afternoons. For a father, who had ignored Sharon for years, now Walt was totally obsessed with Sharon. He bathed Sharon every night, combed her hair, washed her underwear, and carefully dressed her each night from head to toe before taking her to nice restaurants. Both were drinking scotch whiskey and they barely missed hitting a mountain, and almost ran out of fuel before finding a runway. It is important to look at the Disney family rather than just Walt Disney in trying to understand the Disney phenomena. The Lillian Disney Trust bought the Silverado Vineyards, which Diane & her husband manage as,,gentlemen growers" as they call it. This side of the Disney family is shunned by the Illuminati insiders in the Napa Valley, as well as by the Roy O. Although very private, there are occasional moments of publicity from Diane Disney Miller, when she donated wine for a fund raiser for the Planned Parenthood Shasta Diablo held at the estate Niebaum-Coppola, 23 owned by director/producer Francis Ford Coppola. Congressman, a state official & lawyer in Kansas who had a brother Richard Lester Disney- who is a Rhodes Scholar and a Mason too. Wesley Ernest Disney, by the way began as a lawyer in Muskogee County (a Satanic controlled county), and was a Christian Scientist. Doris Miles Disney has been a writer of occult fiction, such as the Magic Grandfather the Chandler Policy (1972) and Trick or Treat (1972) as well as many other occult novels.

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Behaviors that can be controlled by as a consequence of altering the consequences (reinforcers and punishments) that follow them are referred to as behavior hypertension nursing assessment purchase innopran xl canada. An operant is strengthened (increased) or weakened (decreased) as a function of the operants events that follow it. Teaching a subordinate to prepare an accurate weekly budget report is an example of operant condi tioning. The relationships of S > R > S > R 1 1 2 2 that uses principles of are called the contingencies of reinforcement. A designates the antecedent achieving individual learning by reinforce or stimulus that precedes the behavior B, while C is the consequence, the result of the be ment. Skinner believed that such a sequence will be acted out in the future if it proves to interchangeably with be adaptive for the individual. Thus, behavior organizational modification is individual learning by reinforcement. Organizational has been added to indicate that the operant ap In this text, used inter changeably with term proach is being used in work settings. In this discussion, the terms behavior modification behavior modification and organizational behavior modification are used interchangeably. Principles of Operant Conditioning Several principles of operant conditioning can aid managers attempting to influence behavior. In a general sense, moti positive reinforcement vation is an internal cause of behavior, while reinforcement is an external cause. Positive Action that increases reinforcement occurs when a positively valued consequence follows a response to a stimu the likelihood of a lus. Thus, positive reinforcement is anything that both increases the strength of response particular behavior. These positive reinforcers could include items such as raises, bonuses, or promotions or less tangible things such as praise or encouragement. Without reinforcement, no measurable modification of behavior is likely to take place. In some cases, reinforcers work as predicted; for example, positive reinforcement has been shown to be very effective in reducing accidents and producing safe behaviors at the workplace. Also, giving reinforcers long after the occurrence of the desired behaviors decreases the probability of the recur rence of the behavior because the connection between the two is more difficult to make. Increasingly, organizations are tying rewards and systems of positive reinforcement to corpo rate values. Likewise, Chemical Bank has set up programs to positively reinforce employee actions Chapter 6 Motivation: Organizational Applications 161 that lead to better customer service. Nonfinancial rewards, such as recognition programs, flexible hours, leaves of absence, time off, and merchandise incentives, can also be used. An event is a negative reinforcer only if its removal after a response increases strengthens a behavior the performance of that response. A familiar example of negative reinforcement during the because the behavior removes some painful summer in Phoenix and Houston is turning on the car air conditioner on a stiflingly hot or unpleasant stimulus. Turning on the air conditioner (the behavior) usually minimizes or terminates an aver sive condition, namely being hot (negative reinforcer). This increases the probability of turning on the air conditioning when the car is hot. Similarly, exerting a high degree of ef fort to complete a job may be negatively reinforced by not having to listen to a nagging boss. Some people be in frequency) of the behavior that brought lieve that punishment is the opposite of reward and is just as effective in changing behavior. Punishment is frequently accompanied by negative attitudes toward the administrator of the punishment, as well as toward the activity that led to the punishment. Despite the potential costs of using punishment, it has been and will continue to be used as a method of altering behavior. For example, punishing a worker who deliberately treats a customer rudely may be an economically necessary way of altering behavior. Extinction reduces the frequency of behavior because positive reinforcement is being withheld. When positive reinforcement for a learned response is withheld, individuals con tinue to practice that behavior for some period of time. If this nonreinforcement continues, the behavior decreases and eventually disappears. The decline in the response rate because extinction of nonreinforcement is defined as extinction. For example, a member of a work team may Decline in response have gotten into the habit of telling jokes at team meetings because people laughed at them rate because of (positive reinforcement). While extinction is a major form of behavior modification, it is less likely than the other approaches to be used in organizational settings because it is more passive. Recall that positive reinforcement occurs when a positively valued consequence. Negative reinforcement occurs when a be havior causes an undesirable factor to be taken away. Punishment occurs when an undesired behavior is followed by a negative consequence. Skinner focuses on specific behaviors and not on such intangi bles as esteem needs or personality structure. For example, suppose that all new management trainees are given a two day training program on preparing budget reports. Shortly after the training sessions, managers notice that most of the reports are still not being prepared correctly. First, they could determine whether the trainees understand the importance of correct reports. They might then find out which trainees are turning in correct reports and what consequences, if any, are being received by these trainees. It could be that turning in correct reports results in nothing, that there are no observable consequences. In the same manner, submitting an incorrect report may also result in no consequences, positive or negative. Behaviorists believe people tend to repeat behaviors that lead to positive consequences. This principle could serve as a cornerstone in improving the report accuracy of trainees. The proposed application of behavior modification in organizations follows a five-step problem-solving process similar to that in Figure 6. Behaviorism in Business and Industry (New York: Harper & Identify Behaviors Row, 1978), p. Do we note improvement even though the improvement may still leave the employee below the company standards.

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As an alternative to the traditional direct measurements fetal arrhythmia 30 weeks innopran xl 40 mg without prescription, the use of digital equipment allows extraction of the Euclidean coordinates (x, y and z) for each landmark and subsequent calculation of various distances in an automatic and fast manner, without the need to perform each measurement separately. The main limitation of the 3D (as well as 2D) image-capturing techniques is the image processing, which includes facial landmark location and extraction. Automatic facial image processing has been explored in several studies, but is still under development and standardization [36, 37, 44, 47-49]. It involves application of special algorithms, which recognize specific anatomical features and craniofacial landmarks. This approach usually involves using a set of images that have been processed manually for location of these landmarks, which are used by a computer program to automatically recognise the same landmarks on a new image based on the similarity. However, current algorithms used for this purpose are still not able to accurately recognize facial landmarks on various faces. Given that each face is different from another, this approach does not always produce an accurate outcome. As a result, most landmarks generated using this approach have to be re-examined manually, which may significantly decrease the advantage of this method versus manual 17 | P a g e landmark allocation. Craniofacial reconstruction Facial reconstruction, which uses anthropometric measurements from skull remains to estimate the facial appearance of a person is an important tool in forensic investigation. Facial reconstruction is based on the fact that the bony cranium represents the supporting basis for soft facial tissue [50]. The reconstruction of the nose, mouth and ears are particularly difficult, as these soft tissues are not supported by a bony frame and the cartilage under these facial features is often not present in skeletal remains [51, 52]. In addition, other phenotypic features such as pigmentation and hair texture cannot be reconstituted from anthropometric measurements and are usually a best guess by the anthropologist, based on inferred ancestry. As a result, most current facial reconstruction methods focus on generating an average face, which may or may not resemble the original one [52-54]. A better understanding of the craniofacial genetics and in particular, knowing the genetic factors behind the size and shape of the specific craniofacial features, would allow potential prediction of these traits and more accurate craniofacial reconstruction from a skull or even a little piece of biological (even non-skeletal) evidence. Craniofacial development and embryogenetics this section briefly outlines the major stages of the craniofacial embryonic development in Homo sapiens, the genes which regulate this complex process and discusses craniofacial malformations that may occur as a result of genetic mutation in these genes. Human craniofacial development is a complex multistep process, involving numerous signalling cascades of factors that control neural crest development, followed by a number of epithelial-mesenchymal interactions that control outgrowth, patterning and skeletal differentiation. The mechanisms involved in this process include various gene expression and protein translation patterns, which regulate cell migration and positioning. Most facial features of the developing human embryo are recognizable from as early as 5 weeks post conception (Figure 10). This influence may be a function of various factors, including differences in nutrition (influencing hormones and growth factors) as well as social interaction. Transverse section through 20-day-old embryo depicting neural folds and neural crest formation. Central to the development of the head is the concept of segmentation, evident in development of the hindbrain and branchial arch systems. Together with migrating neural crest cells, these systems give rise to most of the head and neck compartments (Figure 12). Interactions between signalling molecules cause the medial portion of ectoderm to begin to assume a neural character (green) while lateral portions of ectoderm begin to take on a non-neural character (blue). The prechordal plate mesendoderm (pcp) and the buccopharyngeal membrane (bpm) are indicated. Neural crest cells start to delaminate from the border region between the neuroectoderm and surface ectoderm. The neural crest is a pluripotent cell population that plays a critical role in the development of the vertebrate head. This ectomesenchymal tissue arises from the crests of the neural fold during the gastrulation process of the embryonic disk (Figure 11). Unlike most parts of the body, the facial mesenchyme (whole viscerocranium and part of the neurocranium) is formed principally from the neural crest and not the mesoderm of the embryonic third germ layer [63, 64]. The cranial part begins its development as early as the middle of the third week post coitum. By the fourth week, neural crest cells migrate extensively throughout the embryo in four overlapping domains: cephalic, trunk, sacral and cardiac. Subsequently, the cephalic neural crest cells migrate from the posterior midbrain and hindbrain region into the branchial arch system. The ectomesenchymal neural crest cells then interact with epithelial and mesodermal cell populations present within the arches, leading to the formation of craniofacial bones, 21 | P a g e cartilage and connective tissues. The dermatocranium (roof of the skull), is however formed not from cartilage, but from direct ossification of the deep layers of the dermis. Cells, which migrate within the cranial paraxial mesoderm form somitomeres, which subsequently develop into the muscles of the face and jaws. Other neural crest cell populations provide mesenchyme for angiogenesis to produce blood vessels, in addition to others, which will develop later to melanocytes for skin and eye pigmentation. The first is called prosencephalic centre and is derived from prechordal mesoderm. The second is called rhombencephalic centre, and induces the middle and lower thirds of the face (Figures 13 and 14). Simultaneously with these processes develops the forebrain, which induces multiple signalling areas in the ectoderm. These areas control the differential cell proliferation of the nasal area in the upper face region. Subsequently, these signalling cascades induce the ectomesenchyme to develop five prominences, such as paired maxillary and mandibular and single frontonasal, which give rise to the specific facial features. Disruption to any one of these pathways, interfering with a normal craniofacial three dimensional developmental process, may lead to a variety of craniofacial syndromes including disruption of brain morphogenesis, usually accompanied by facial malformations. Interestingly, there are a number of known malformations of the limbs, which are expressed together with various craniofacial abnormalities [65-68]. This is most likely due to the overlap in signalling pathways involving limb and head development. Therefore, genes that are involved in limb development may also influence normal variation in craniofacial features. Craniofacial embryogenetics the cranial and facial tissues are comprised of a large number of complex structures whose development is controlled by a wide number of genes, expressed in a specific pattern during embryonic maturation (Figure 6). Although many of mutations in these genes can lead to facial anomalies, currently there is little information available regarding specific polymorphisms, which can be identified as potentially indicative of normal variation in craniofacial shape and other facial characteristics. Possible approaches for finding genes and markers associated with normal variation in the craniofacial appearance the identification of the markers responsible for normal craniofacial appearance can be achieved by taking two main approaches: 1. This approach has successfully identified genes and mutations involved in 26 | P a g e many complex disease and traits [70, 71]. In spite of being a very powerful approach, the requirement for such a large sample size and the need to type millions of genetic markers, as well as the high cost, renders the approach not feasible for this research project. It can be performed using one or all of the following pathways: o Identification of genes previously shown to be involved in normal human facial appearance and subsequently selecting markers, which may have an effect on the phenotype (as detailed in section 1. Genes that result in disease phenotype may also affect normal variation of that phenotype, similar to genes involved in Albinism and normal pigmentation [72]. Based on visual differences in craniofacial appearance between various populations, it may be hypothesized that markers with high Fst values, which are located in genes expressed in various stages of craniofacial embryonic development, would be involved in determination of the normal craniofacial appearance. Genetics of the normal craniofacial development in human Until recently, molecular cascades that control human craniofacial development, and particularly of specific facial features, have been poorly understood. In 2012, a further two studies identified an association between several markers and specific craniofacial anthropometric measurements [76, 77].

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The fish fertility data set is of particular interest because it contains a large set of objects (395 individual fish) hypertension diagnosis jnc 7 order innopran xl 80mg fast delivery. The cues for the criterion (number of eggs found in a given fish) were weight of fish, age of fish, and average weight of her eggs. Here, as one would expect for a reasonably large data set, all results are quite stable when one cross-validates. The next problem is to predict which of two professors at a Midwestern college has a higher salary. The cues are gender, his or her current rank, the number of years in current rank, the highest degree earned, and the number of years since highest degree earned. When the test set is the same as the training set, Take the Best makes 4 percentage points fewer accurate inferences than the Bayesian network. However, when the test set is different from the training set, then Take the Best almost matches the Bayesian network. When the test set is the same as the training set, the Bayesian network is considerably more accurate than Take the Best. On average, it was only 3 percentage points behind the Profile Memorization Method, which attains maximal accuracy. However, when the test set is different from the training set, the accuracy of Take the Best is, on average, only 1 to 2 percentage points less than that of the Bayesian network. This result is noteworthy given the simplicity and frugality of Take the Best compared with the computational complexity of the Bayesian network. Savage wrote that the only decision we must make in our lives is how to live our lives (1954, p. A Bayesian who tries to maximize under deliberation constraints must choose a strategy under a combination of criteria, such as computational cost, frugality, accuracy, and perhaps even transparency. Thus, it may happen that a Bayesian herself may choose Take the Best or another fast and frugal heuristic over expensive but less robust Bayesian networks in some situations. The major results summarized in this chapter are as follows: First, across 20 real-world environments, the fast and frugal Take the Best outperformed multiple regression in situations with learning (test set training set), and even the simpler Minimalist came within 2 percentage points. Second, we specified which characteristics of information in real-world environments enable Take the Best to match or outperform linear models. Third, we showed that sophisticated Bayesian networks were only slightly more accurate than Take the Best. The results reported in this chapter were obtained with real-world data but must be evaluated with respect to the conditions used, which include the following: First, we studied inferences only under complete knowledge, unlike Gigerenzer and Goldstein (1996), who studied the performance of heuristics under limited knowledge. In the simulations reported by Gigerenzer and Goldstein, the major result was that the more limited the knowledge, the smaller the discrepancy between Minimalist and other heuristics becomes. Thus Minimalist, whose respectable scores were nevertheless always the lowest, really flourishes when there is only limited knowledge. Gigerenzer and Goldstein (1996) also develop circumstances under which the counterintuitive less-ismore effect is possible: when knowing less information can lead to better performance than knowing more information. Other conditions of the studies reported here include the use of binary and dichotomized data, which can be a disadvantage to multiple regression and Bayesian networks. Finally, we have used only correct data, and not studied predictions under the realistic assumption that some of the information is wrong. If many sets of weights, even unit weights, can perform about as well as the optimal set of weights in a linear model, this is called a flat maximum. The performance of fast and frugal heuristics in some of the environments indicates that a flat maximum can extend beyond the issue of weights: inferences based solely on the best cue can be as accurate as those based on any weighted linear combination of all cues. The results in Section 3, in particular, the theorem on noncompensatory information, explain conditions under which we can predict flat maxima. The success of fast and frugal heuristics emphasizes the importance of studying the structure of the information in the environment. Such a program is Brunswikian, but it is one that dispenses with multiple regression as the tool for describing both the processes of the mind and the structure of the environment. Intuitive Politicians, Theologians, and Prosecutors: Exploring the Empirical Implications of Deviant Functionalist Metaphors Philip E. He felt that, whenever you scratch the surface of even the most forbiddingly formal psychological explanation, you discover informal assumptions about the goals that people are consciously or unconsciously trying to accomplish by thinking, feeling, and acting as they do. Key questions become: How well do people size up against professional standards of competence. Do they draw causal inferences in the rigorous fashion that we might expect of real scientists and do they make choices in the analytical manner that we might expect of real economists. Both research programs have been phenomenally successful, triggering an avalanche of discoveries of when judgment and choice deviate from conventional standards of scientific or economic rationality. However, there is no compelling reason to suppose that, just because these dominant research programs have yet to run out of steam, we should be barred from exploring the empirical implications of alternative functionalist metaphors. As I show in this chapter, in certain well-defined contexts it proves illuminating to posit that people function like intuitive politicians striving to create desired impressions on target audiences, intuitive prosecutors communicating their resolve to make harsh dispositional attributions designed to punish violators of social rules (even if the suspected miscreants can invoke plausible denials, justifications, or excuses in their defense), and intuitive theologians rising to the defense of sacred values against secular, especially monetary, encroachments. This chapter focuses on the most extensively examined of these metaphoric alternatives: the notion that people can be modeled usefully as intuitive politicians whose primary goal is to protect and enhance their social identities in the eyes of the constituencies to whom they feel accountable. Following Weber (1910/1978) and Coleman (1990), Tetlock (1992) argues that accountability is a pervasive presence in our lives because it represents a fundamental sociocultural adaptation to the problem of coordinating relationships among agents who are capable of observing, commenting on, and controlling their own actions. In effect, accountability is part of the solution to the Hobbesian riddle of how society is possible. Organized social life cannot exist without regularities, which are provided by shared rules, norms, and social practices. Failure to act in ways for which one can construct acceptable accounts leads to varying degrees of censure, depending on the gravity of the offense and the norms of the society. It is, however, a common mistake to depict accountability as a unitary phenomenon. This chapter does not, however, try to decompose accountability into its elementary components. Rather, it treats accountability as a natural bridging construct between the individual and institutional levels of analysis in the study of judgment and choice. The accountability relationships that govern our lives are not only complex (because we must answer to a variety of others under a variety of ground rules), but also fluid and dynamic (as each party in the relationship learns to anticipate the reactions of the other, we observe subtle patterns of mutual adaptation). This framework is best viewed as but one explanatory option in a spectrum of options consistent with the politician metaphor (in much the same way that there is a broad spectrum of testable middle-range theories consistent with the economist and scientist metaphors). The key postulates of the model are as follows: 1) the universality of accountability. People do some things alone, but it is difficult to escape the evaluative scrutiny of others in a complex, interdependent society. Most people are pragmatic intuitive politicians who seek the approval of the constituencies pressing on them at the moment for combinations of intrinsic and extrinsic reasons.

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This is a gendered exclusion as women contribute in essential ways to global politics even though they are more likely to populate those areas not considered high politics and their day-to-day lives may be considered peripheral blood pressure 50 over 0 cheap innopran xl 80mg without a prescription. Traditional perspectives that ignore gender not only overlook the contributions of women and the impact global politics has on them but also perpetually justify this exclusion. If women are outside these domains of power, then their exper iences and contributions are not relevant. Feminist theorists have worked to demonstrate that this distinction between private and public is false. Not all gender considerations rest on the analysis of women, nor should they, and gender relates to expectations and identities attached to both men and women. Masculinity is often associated with rationality, power, independence and the public sphere. Femininity is often associated with irrationality, in need of protection, domesticity and the private sphere. These gender identities are also imbued with power, in particular patriarchal power, which subordinates women and feminine gender identities to men and masculine gender identities. What this means is that socially constructed gender identities also determine distributions of power, which impact where women are in global politics. Whereas men can be feminine and women masculine, masculinity is expected for men and femininity of women. For example, the issue of sexual and gendered violence in confict has only recently entered the international agenda. Comparatively, the mass rape of women during and after the Second World War was not prosecuted as the occurrence was either considered an unfortunate by-product of war or simply ignored. This has since changed, with the 2002 Rome Statute recognising rape as a war crime. However, this recognition has not led to the curtailment of confict related sexual violence and this form of violence remains endemic in many conficts around the world, as does impunity for its occurrence. Intersectionality refers to where these 65 International Relations Theory identities intersect, and in turn how different groups of people are margin alised, suggesting that we must consider each in tandem rather than in isolation. However, it also challenges gendered constructions of women as inherently peaceful, as in need of protection or as victims. If women are assumed to be victims rather than actors or as peaceful rather than aggressive or as only existing in the domestic or private realm (rather than the public sphere), then their experiences and perspectives on global politics are more easily ignored and justifed as marginal. Accounts of women disrupting these gender identities, such as being agents of political violence for example, have challenged these assumptions. Therefore, taking feminism seriously is not simply about upending the historical marginalisation of women, it also provides a more complete picture of global politics by taking into account a broader range of actors and actions. There are also questions regarding how post-confict societies are to be rebuilt and how best to prevent relapses into confict. Missions now frequently include a laundry list of state-building roles, including re establishing police and military forces and building political institutions. Feminist theorists have demonstrated the ways that peacekeeping, as security-seeking behaviour, is shaped by masculine notions of militarised security. Post-confict situations are generally characterised as the formal cessation of violence between armed combatants, ideally transitioning to a situation where the state has a monopoly on the use of force. It is this shift that peacekeeping missions seek to facilitate, conducting a wide range of tasks such as disarming combatants, facilitating peace deals between various state and non-state groups, monitoring elections and building rule of law capacity in state institutions such as police forces and the military. This includes rape and sexual assault, domestic violence and forced prostitution, as well as those selling sex to alleviate fnancial insecurity. In terms of structural and indirect violence, women are generally excluded from positions of power and decision-making in reconstruction efforts and have limited access to economic resources. That fgure had only risen to 3% for military and 10% for policy personnel by 2014. However, consistent with the construction of a gendered understanding of peace discussed above, there remain limitations to the full implementation of Resolution 1325. A United Nations study by Radhika Coomaraswamy (2015) found that gender in peacekeeping continues to be under-resourced politically and fnancially, and the gendered elements of post-confict reconstruction are still marginalised in missions. Women still experience high rates of violence post confict, are still excluded from peace processes and still ignored in peace building policy. This is demonstrated, for example, in national and inter national attempts to disarm former combatants after confict and reintegrate them into post-confict society. This is a post-confict policy area that feminist scholars have routinely exposed as being highly gendered and exclusionary of women who are former combatants. Megan Mackenzie (2010) has attrib uted this to constructed gender identities that minimise the idea that women are agents in confict or involved in war-making, instead constructing them as victims with limited agency. This example demonstrates the power invested in gendered identities, the ways they can shape policy and how gender inequality is perpetuated via such policy. Finally, international interventions such as peacekeeping missions also contribute to the continuation of violence post-confict and are a site in which gendered identities are produced. There have been numerous reports of peacekeepers perpetrating sexual violence against women, girls and boys while on mission. Beyond this there is also recognition that women are important agents in political, economic and social processes.